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FEDERAL CONSTITUTION
FEDERAL ACT ON DIRECT FEDERAL TAX
MEDICAL DEVICES ORDINANCE
CODE OF OBLIGATIONS
FEDERAL LAW ON PRIVATE INTERNATIONAL LAW
LUGANO CONVENTION
CODE OF CRIMINAL PROCEDURE
CIVIL PROCEDURE CODE
FEDERAL ACT ON POLITICAL RIGHTS
CIVIL CODE
FEDERAL ACT ON CARTELS AND OTHER RESTRAINTS OF COMPETITION
FEDERAL ACT ON INTERNATIONAL MUTUAL ASSISTANCE IN CRIMINAL MATTERS
DEBT ENFORCEMENT AND BANKRUPTCY ACT
FEDERAL ACT ON DATA PROTECTION
CRIMINAL CODE
CYBERCRIME CONVENTION
COMMERCIAL REGISTER ORDINANCE
FEDERAL ACT ON COMBATING MONEY LAUNDERING AND TERRORIST FINANCING
FREEDOM OF INFORMATION ACT
FEDERAL ACT ON THE INTERNATIONAL TRANSFER OF CULTURAL PROPERTY
FEDERAL ACT ON MEDICINAL PRODUCTS AND MEDICAL DEVICES
- I. Historical Background
- II. The constitutional concept of culture
- III. Obligations under international law
- IV. Commentary in the strict sense
- V. Protection of Fundamental Rights
- VI. Structure of cultural funding
- VII. Protection of Cultural Property
- Further recommended reading
- Bibliography
- Materials
I. Historical Background
1 The Helvetic Constitution of 1798 was the first to establish a cultural policy based on republican ideals within the Helvetic Republic. The promotion of national culture and the ‘intellectual well-being’ of the people was regarded as a state objective and a prerequisite for the material equality of citizens. The political tensions following the Sonderbund War of 1847 and the ongoing disputes over the status of culture in the emerging federal state prevented the inclusion of comprehensive cultural and educational provisions in the Federal Constitution of 1848. Nevertheless, the Confederation has supported cultural institutions since its inception. In 1849, it founded the Federal Archives, which it now operates under the name Swiss Federal Archives. A proposal put forward in the same year by the head of the Department of Home Affairs to promote art exhibitions and associations was rejected by the Federal Council. He is said to have justified this decision by citing cantonal responsibility for the promotion of the arts. From 1884 onwards, the Confederation supported institutions for arts and crafts and made a contribution to the Art Society. From 1887, the Confederation became more extensively involved in the promotion of the arts and founded the Federal Art Commission (EKK). In 1890, the Confederation laid the foundations for the establishment of the Swiss National Museum (now the Swiss National Museum), followed by the National Library (now the Swiss National Library).
2 The Confederation always regarded its role as complementary to existing funding structures provided by municipalities, cantons and private patrons. It only assumed broader cultural policy responsibilities in the face of propaganda from neighbouring countries shortly before the outbreak of the Second World War. In 1939, it founded the Pro Helvetia Cultural Foundation and adopted the cultural programme of the Spiritual National Defence. In an attempt to counter the National Socialist film offensive, the Confederation also established the Swiss Film Chamber in 1938 and restricted film imports by law. An explicit transfer of powers from the cantons to the Confederation followed in 1958 (Art. 27ter of the Federal Constitution) under the cultural-political pressure of the Cold War. This cultural funding, which was predominantly geared towards state interests, persisted for decades.
3 In particular, the social upheavals of the 1960s led to an opening up and democratisation of cultural policy. A milestone was the final report published in 1975 by the expert commission on Swiss cultural policy appointed by the Federal Council (the so-called Clottu Report). The report outlines a vision of a democratic cultural policy that understands culture as an expression of individual freedom and a prerequisite for democracy, and promotes it in its diverse forms.
4 In addition to the aforementioned powers in the field of film (Art. 27ter of the old Federal Constitution), from the 1960s onwards the Confederation was selectively responsible for other areas of culture (N. 10 f.), namely for the protection of cultural property within the framework of civil defence (Art. 22bis of the former Federal Constitution), for nature and heritage conservation (Art. 24sexies of the former Federal Constitution) and for electronic media (Art. 55bis of the former Federal Constitution), as well as in the field of languages (Art. 116 of the former Federal Constitution). Efforts to further strengthen the Federal Government’s powers to promote culture failed following the rejection at the ballot box of the 1981 Cultural Initiative, the rejection of the counter-draft in 1986 and the rejection of a cultural promotion article in 1994.
5 It was not until the completely revised FC that Art. 69 FC was to contain, for the first time, a more comprehensive federal competence in cultural matters. Draft 95 contained a cultural article which also provided for the promotion of understanding and exchange among the language communities, as well as the competence to enact regulations for the promotion of film and the regulation of the film market (Art. 73 Draft 95). The proposal was controversial during the consultation process, which is why a (declaratory) reservation in favour of cantonal cultural competence was included in Art. 83 Draft 96. Discussions in the constitutional commissions led to the separation of cultural promotion and language regulations into separate articles. The Federal Constitution was supplemented with a clause going beyond the mandate to update legislation, stating that the Confederation promotes ‘art and music, particularly in the field of education’ (Art. 69 para. 2).
II. The constitutional concept of culture
6 The concept of culture is difficult to define. In the academic world, the term is treated differently depending on the discipline; a definitive state definition of culture would be problematic. The term appears in numerous provisions of the Federal Constitution, yet the Constitution refrains from providing a definition. Swiss law does not recognise a uniform concept of culture. In the individual provisions of the Federal Constitution, the concept of culture is sometimes used in a broader sense (Art. 2 para. 2 FC), and sometimes in a narrower sense (Art. 69 FC), which is why the constitutional concept of culture must be interpreted in the context of the purpose and factual context of each provision. The Confederation regularly refers to the (broad) concept of culture from the UNESCO World Conference in Mexico (1982). According to this, culture ‘should be regarded as the totality of the unique spiritual, material, intellectual and emotional aspects that characterise a society or a social group. This includes not only art and literature, but also ways of life, fundamental human rights, value systems, traditions and beliefs’. The Declaration of the UNESCO World Conference on Cultural Policies and Sustainable Development (known as MONDIACULT 2022) confirms this concept of culture. By adopting the declaration, some 150 states – including Switzerland – have spoken out in favour of recognising culture as a global public good (common good) with intrinsic value.
7 In its application to the division of powers between the Confederation and the cantons, the concept of culture requires a pragmatic qualification. The federal competence for the promotion of culture under Art. 69 para. 2 of the FC covers culture in the narrower sense. This generally includes the promotion of cultural creation, the dissemination of art and culture, the protection of cultural property, and the management or promotion of cultural institutions such as museums, archives or libraries.
8 It is undisputed that the concept of culture under Article 69 of the FC also encompasses artistic activities and the dissemination of art, and that in such cases the freedom of the arts (Article 21 of the FC) applies. The Federal Supreme Court has defined the constitutional concept of art in open-ended terms, which is why decision-makers must determine the artistic value of a work on a case-by-case basis. In doing so, one must take into account formal, material and institutional structural characteristics inherent to art, whilst also considering the artistic self-image. The distinction between cultural promotion and the promotion of the arts as a subcategory is relevant, amongst other reasons, because federal powers in the field of arts promotion are more comprehensive (see N. 20).
9 The newer concept of intangible cultural heritage (Art. 1(a)(no. 1) KFG) extends the scope of cultural promotion to include social traditions and practices which, according to the Federal Inventory of Living Traditions, encompass in particular the areas of ‘social practices’, ‘oral expressions’ and ‘traditional crafts’. In practice, drawing the line can be challenging. The competences of other cultural sectors in the broader sense, such as nature conservation and heritage protection, education and science, are enshrined in specific constitutional articles. In this context, UNESCO’s comprehensive and open concept of culture remains the point of reference for all cultural policy.
III. Obligations under international law
10 The promotion of culture by the Confederation and the cantons pursuant to Art. 69 of the FC does not take place in a legal vacuum. Rather, both the Confederation and the cantons are bound, within the scope of their respective competences, by obligations under international law concerning the protection and promotion of culture. International agreements and conventions underscore the outstanding importance of culture for peace, human dignity and social cohesion. They give concrete form to and reinforce Switzerland’s cultural policy mandate and create a binding framework within which state cultural policy must operate at national and cantonal level.
11 Even early international humanitarian law protected cultural property (Art. 27 of the Hague Convention (1907), and later also the Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property (1954)), which underscores the paramount importance of culture for modern society. The looting and destruction of thousands upon thousands of cultural assets during the Second World War was reflected in the post-war international legal order. The Charter of the United Nations obliges the contracting parties to cooperate in the field of culture and to promote stability, welfare and peace (Art. 55(b) UN Charter). The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), founded in 1945 to fulfil this mandate and of which Switzerland has been a member since 1949, is committed to the preservation and promotion of culture as a means of cooperation and peacebuilding.
12 Switzerland has ratified several international conventions under the auspices of UNESCO, which concern the protection of cultural heritage, the fight against illicit trafficking in cultural property, and the promotion of the diversity of cultural expressions. These instruments each define their own scope of application and pursue different objectives. The protection and promotion of culture are also an expression of the human rights obligations arising from the human rights treaties binding on Switzerland (see N. 24).
13 At the regional level, Switzerland has committed itself to safeguarding and preserving culture within the European context by ratifying a series of cultural conventions adopted under the auspices of the Council of Europe. Within this framework, the protection of cultural heritage has increasingly become a matter of human rights protection. The European Court of Human Rights recognises the protection of cultural property as a legitimate public interest in a democratic society. It has also addressed the protection and promotion of culture as an integral part of various Convention rights (see N. 24).
IV. Commentary in the strict sense
A. Cultural sovereignty of the cantons (para. 1)
14 The competence to protect and promote culture lies with the cantons. This follows from the general principles governing the division of powers between the Confederation and the cantons (Art. 3 in conjunction with Art. 42 of the FC). The non-exclusive reservation in Art. 69 para. 1 of the FC confirms the cantons’ original competence in the field of culture. The inclusion of this provision in the new FC demonstrates that the federal division of powers in the field of culture is to continue to be of great importance.
15 The cantons pursue cultural promotion according to their own criteria. This institutionalised cultural federalism reflects Switzerland’s linguistic and cultural diversity, of which the cantons are the principal bearers. The majority of cantonal constitutions contain a state mandate for cultural promotion. In many cantons, the cultural mandate encompasses not only the promotion of art and culture but also the protection and preservation of cultural assets. Some cantons also take on the task of preserving customs or folk culture. The extent to which the cantons interpret their responsibilities in the cultural sphere is generally determined by the provisions of the cantonal constitutions, the cantonal cultural promotion laws and cantonal funding practices.
16 Intercantonal cooperation in the field of culture has been carried out since 1986 by the Conference of Cantonal Cultural Representatives (KBK). Since 2011, the Confederation, cantons and municipalities have been exchanging views on cultural policy within the framework of the National Cultural Dialogue and adopting recommendations, reports and strategies on the topics addressed. Individual cantons and municipalities have concluded agreements amongst themselves for the mutual support of cultural institutions. Furthermore, the Money Gaming Act obliges the cantons to use the net profits from lotteries and sports betting in full for charitable purposes, including culture (Art. 125 para. 1 BGS). The cantons thus receive a substantial annual sum, which they (must) use, amongst other things, to promote culture.
B. The Confederation’s powers to promote culture (para. 2)
1. Support for cultural endeavours in the national interest (para. 2, part 1)
17 Under Art. 69 para. 2 of the FC, the Confederation may ‘support cultural endeavours of national interest’. According to prevailing legal opinion, this implies a parallel competence for cultural promotion on the part of the Confederation, although the Confederation’s competence is less comprehensive than the cantons’ original competence for cultural promotion. This is evident, on the one hand, in the wording, according to which the Confederation may ‘support’ cultural endeavours of national interest. The term implies a certain degree of restraint on the part of the Confederation in the promotion of culture. However, particularly in those areas where the Confederation has been pursuing an independent promotion policy for decades, there is de facto also an independent competence of the Confederation to promote culture. The discretionary wording grants the Confederation a wide margin of discretion in the exercise of its competence.
18 The Confederation’s competence to provide funding is limited to cultural endeavours of national interest. In view of the significant reservations expressed by the cantons regarding the inclusion of this provision in the revised Federal Constitution, the term must be interpreted narrowly. In interpreting the constitutional concept of ‘national interest’, reference may be made, amongst other things, to its statutory definition in Art. 6 para. 2 of the Culture Promotion Act. A national interest is deemed to exist, in particular, where a cultural asset is important for Switzerland or its linguistic communities, a project has supra-regional implications, or a person’s artistic talent is of national or international significance. This also applies where an organisation contributes to the networking of cultural practitioners, a project promotes innovation, or a cultural event has a national or international reach; likewise, where a project makes a significant contribution to national or international cultural exchange. The Confederation’s competence to promote culture in the national interest also includes the protection of cultural property (see N. 44).
19 The list in Art. 6 para. 2 KFG is illustrative; the Confederation retains considerable discretion. The Confederation’s cultural policy documents therefore reflect a decidedly broad interpretation of the provision. Under such an interpretation, federal cultural promotion increasingly resembles a parallel federal competence.
2. Promotion of the arts and music in the field of education (para. 2, part 2)
20 With regard to the promotion of the arts and music, particularly in the field of education, Art. 69 para. 3 of the FC establishes an independent promotional competence as a parallel federal competence. The Confederation’s competence in this area is more comprehensive than that in the field of culture in general. Where the Confederation promotes education in the arts and music, it must respect cantonal educational sovereignty, which particularly favours support schemes in the extracurricular sector.
21 Article 67a of the FC supplements both the education articles and the culture articles of the FC. As a lex specialis to Article 69(2) of the FC, the provision assigns the Confederation more extensive promotion powers in the field of music. It grants the Confederation a power to provide support in the field of musical education, in particular for children and young people (Art. 67a para. 1 and para. 2, first sentence, of the FC). It obliges the cantons to promote musical education and to work towards high-quality music teaching in schools (Art. 67a para. 1 and para. 2, first sentence, of the FC). The aim is to strengthen the musical education of children and young people. In implementation of Art. 67a para. 3 of the FC and the new Art. 12 para. 4 of the Culture Promotion Act, the ‘Young Musical Talents’ Ordinance supplements federal legislation. The ‘Young Musical Talents’ programme aims to identify children and young people with above-average musical ability and potential at an early stage and to support them in a targeted and sustainable manner. The Confederation is responsible for the overall management of the programme and sets the minimum requirements for cantonal funding applications.
C. Respect for the country’s cultural and linguistic diversity (para. 3)
22 Article 69(3) of the FC obliges the Confederation, in fulfilling its cultural responsibilities, to respect the cultural and linguistic diversity of the country. Cultural diversity is an essential feature of Switzerland. It is institutionally enshrined in the preamble to the FC, in its purpose clause (Art. 2 para. 2 of the FC), in the individual fundamental rights (in particular Art. 18 (freedom of language), 21 (freedom of the arts), 15 FC (freedom of religion)) and in the relevant articles on competences. The emphasis on cultural diversity is balanced by the preservation of Switzerland as a political entity. The Swiss Federal Constitution is characterised by the pursuit of unity in diversity. This tension between diversity and unity is also reflected in the provisions on the promotion of culture.
23 Due to the open concept of culture (see N. 6 f.), consideration for cultural diversity is not limited to Switzerland’s traditional four-language system (Art. 4 FC) and regional diversity. The open concept of culture is a prerequisite for a contemporary understanding of culture and opens the Constitution to cultural concerns of the most diverse kinds, as well as to the constant – and sometimes surprising – development of art and culture. The Federal Constitution protects cultural diversity, however it may appear as ‘a dynamic, even fluid element’. The aim is to ensure the diversity and continuous development of cultural activities and to enable all sections of the population to participate in cultural life.
V. Protection of Fundamental Rights
A. Ensuring favourable framework conditions
24 Cultural promotion by the Confederation and the cantons, like all state action, is bound by fundamental rights. The Federal Constitution obliges the state to realise fundamental rights throughout the legal system (Art. 35 FC) . Several fundamental and human rights simultaneously oblige the Confederation and the cantons, at a policy level, to preserve and promote a liberal cultural life, in particular freedom of the arts (Art. 21 of the FC). However, a legal entitlement to the allocation of subsidies for culture cannot be derived either from fundamental rights or from Art. 69 of the FC.
25 In the field of culture, the constitutional duty to promote primarily entails the task of creating political and legal framework conditions that enable cultural exchange, education and diverse cultural production, and that safeguard the country’s ‘basic cultural provision’. The promotion of culture is a prerequisite for the exercise of fundamental freedoms (freedom through the state). Access to and engagement with the cultural products of others is an important component of human experience and a prerequisite for multidimensional personal development through education, art, science and other cultural goods and practices. At a policy level, the mandate to realise fundamental rights entails the duty to create the legal and practical conditions on which art and culture are based, including the protection, preservation, promotion and dissemination of culture.
26 International human rights treaties also highlight the interconnection between cultural promotion and individual spheres of freedom. Article 27 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights protects the right to freely participate in the cultural life of the community and to enjoy the arts. Underlying this provision is the idea that only free participation in the cultural life of a society enables the free development of a person. The same idea is found in Article 15 of the UN Covenant I. According to the Social Committee, the promotion and respect of cultural rights are prerequisites for the protection of human dignity and fulfilling interactions in a culturally diverse world. In a similar vein, Article 27 of the UN Covenant II protects the right of minorities to ‘maintain their own cultural life’. UNESCO, too, has repeatedly emphasised that culture is a social phenomenon arising from the combination of individual creative activities and cooperation. The European Court of Human Rights protects various aspects of cultural participation, in particular through the application of the freedom of expression (Article 10 of the ECHR) and the right to respect for private and family life (Article 8 of the ECHR).
B. Duties of prevention and protection
27 At the level of prevention and protection, fundamental rights in general and artistic freedom in particular ensure a prohibition on the instrumentalisation of culture for state purposes. State cultural funding serves the cultural practitioners it supports. It must be geared towards supporting personal development and cultural diversity. Conversely, this means that the state may exercise only limited control over state-funded culture.
28 Within the framework of public administration, the authorities are obliged to approach funded culture with an objective and impartial attitude. Whether the state has an obligation of neutrality towards culture has only been addressed to a limited extent in legal scholarship and case law. In principle, the state must ensure that funding measures in the cultural sector – just like those for the media or academia – are value-neutral and thus structure all its actions in an ‘opinion-neutral’ manner. For state cultural institutions, the obligation of neutrality is linked to procedural and substantive requirements (see N. 27). The duty of neutrality is breached, for example, when the state takes a one-sided, evaluative stance on works of art protected by fundamental rights (prohibition on evaluation). From today’s perspective, an official statement that an artistically designed tomb “barely exceeds the standard of a garden sculpture” is problematic. In the case of funding measures, there is a prohibition on identification. The claim that art is funded by the state “to enhance our country’s standing, and not to denigrate it” must therefore be rejected.
29 This does not, however, mean that the state must adopt an indifferent attitude towards cultural activities in a negative sense. Rather, the state is obliged to guarantee cultural diversity (see N. 19) and, where appropriate, to promote it; that is, to take active measures and – where necessary – to take a stand and implement protective measures.
An expression of the constitutional duty to protect is to promote culture whilst balancing it against other protected legal interests, such as protection against discrimination or overriding public interests. If cultural forms of expression infringe the fundamental rights of third parties or other protected legal interests in an unjustifiable manner, exclusion from cultural funding instruments may be justified in justified individual cases. Where there is a suspicion that cultural works or activities infringe upon protected legal interests, a careful examination and weighing up of the conflicting interests must be carried out on a case-by-case basis, taking the overall context into account; procedural rights must be upheld (in particular the right to be heard (Art. 29 para. 2 of the FC)) and the authority must exercise the greatest possible objectivity and restraint in its decision.
C. Procedural guarantees
30 Even where the state exercises restraint, cultural promotion exerts a decisive influence on culture through the allocation of state resources. This makes it all the more crucial that the instruments and procedures of cultural promotion comply with the requirements of the rule of law. The prohibition of arbitrariness (Art. 9 of the FC), the principle of equality before the law (Art. 8 of the FC) and procedural rights (Art. 29 et seq. of the FC) must be observed in state cultural promotion in general and in the allocation of subsidies in particular. Of particular importance are the equitable structure of funding, the definition of balanced funding criteria, the composition of the competent body, the transparent justification of funding decisions and legal protection.
31 When awarding funding measures, the right to equal and fair treatment under Art. 29 para. 1 of the FC must be guaranteed. The guarantee of the right to be heard (Art. 29 para. 2 of the FC) requires that funding procedures be structured in such a way that those affected can put forward their arguments. This is generally fulfilled by the project application. The authority must assess the substance of the application and give reasons for its decision. The reasons must be formulated in such a way that they address the content of the funding application and set out the grounds for the decision in a comprehensible manner. The scope of the requirement to state reasons depends on the circumstances of the individual case and the authority’s discretion.
32 The Cultural Promotion Act excludes the ground of inappropriateness in appeal proceedings against financial grants (Art. 26 para. 2 CPA). Some legal scholars view this restriction critically in light of the guarantee of access to the courts (Art. 29a of the FC). Given the precarious nature of the cultural sector and the sometimes heavy reliance of cultural practitioners and cultural institutions on state subsidies, an extension of legal protection would be welcome. The Federal Supreme Court ruled that at least the absolute exclusion of a legal remedy against decisions concerning cultural funding constituted a violation of the guarantee of access to the courts (Art. 29a of the FC).
VI. Structure of cultural funding
A. At federal level
33 The Federal Act on the Promotion of Culture (KFG) sets out the federal government’s cultural mandate in concrete terms. It governs the Confederation’s cultural promotion in the areas of the preservation of cultural heritage, artistic and cultural creation (including the promotion of emerging talent), the dissemination of art and culture, exchange between cultural and linguistic communities in Switzerland, cultural exchange with other countries, and the organisation of the Pro Helvetia Foundation (Art. 1 KFG). This is without prejudice to a considerable number of special laws governing selected areas of federal cultural promotion. Of particular relevance are the acts concerning the National Library, the federal museums and collections, film, nature and heritage conservation, and the transfer of cultural property.
34 To implement its cultural responsibilities, the Confederation has four cultural institutions as the main bodies responsible for its cultural policy: The Federal Office of Culture (FOC), the Pro Helvetia Foundation, the Swiss National Library and the Swiss National Museum. The Cultural Dispatch adopted by the Federal Assembly specifies the federal government’s funding priorities and sets out federal expenditure on culture for a four-year funding period (Art. 27 KFG).
35 The Confederation has various resources at its disposal for the promotion of culture and cultural participation. The Confederation promotes the creation of art and culture and cultural participation through, amongst other things, funding and prizes, thereby supporting both excellence and broad-based participation. The preservation of works of art and cultural assets takes place within the framework of cultural property protection law, as well as through measures for archiving and storage in federal museums, collections and archives (see N. 44 f.). Support for cultural outreach at federal level is primarily provided through the funding of exhibitions and outreach programmes in cultural institutions, such as the Swiss National Museum.
B. In the cantons
36 Most cantons have a cultural promotion act that gives concrete form to their constitutional cultural mandate (see N. 13). On this basis, they set out the guidelines for their cultural policy, as well as the priorities and budgetary measures, in each legislative period. Implementation is generally carried out jointly by the canton and the municipalities, based on an internal division of responsibilities, some of which is expressly enshrined in law. Municipalities have varying degrees of discretion in developing their cultural promotion policies. The material scope of the cantonal cultural promotion laws varies. As a rule, they cover the promotion of cultural and artistic creation, outreach, artistic education, access to culture, cultural participation, cultural heritage and the organisation of cantonal cultural institutions. In some cantons, the protection of tangible and/or intangible cultural heritage is regulated by specific legislation.
37 The organisation of the cantonal bodies responsible for cultural promotion falls within the autonomy of the cantons. As the cantons are also responsible, among other things, for implementing international agreements in the cultural sphere, it may be necessary to adapt their institutional structures accordingly in order to meet international obligations (see N. 6), such as following Switzerland’s ratification of the Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage (see N. 10). The cantons of Fribourg and Vaud have specific structures for intangible cultural heritage.
38 Most cantons operate according to the principle of subsidiarity, whereby promotion is primarily the responsibility of private individuals and private or public organisations. The forms of cultural promotion are diverse. Key promotional measures include financial contributions in the form of one-off or recurring subsidies; in addition, other forms of support may be provided for by law, such as the awarding of cultural prizes and grants, the purchase of works, or the provision—whether free of charge or for a fee—of production and outreach spaces, infrastructure or personnel.
C. Support in emergency situations
39 The duty to support culture applies particularly in emergency situations, such as pandemics, armed conflicts, natural disasters or cyberattacks. This stems from the great importance attached to culture in a federal state, as well as an awareness of its systemically significant role in a pluralistic democracy. Public funding of culture contributes to the democratic development of the community and fosters an openness to the ideas of others, which is essential for the exercise of citizens’ most fundamental rights and duties.
40 The COVID-19 pandemic between 2020 and 2022 confronted the entire cultural sector with considerable economic and structural difficulties. A series of urgent measures were taken to mitigate the social and economic consequences for cultural practitioners and cultural institutions. The measures pursued a threefold objective, namely to mitigate the economic consequences of the pandemic for cultural enterprises, cultural practitioners and amateur cultural associations, to support cultural enterprises in adapting to the new conditions, and to preserve cultural diversity (Art. 1 Covid-19 Culture Ordinance). The decentralised management of these measures, as well as the enhanced cooperation between state actors at all federal levels, civil society and the private sector, were assessed positively in retrospect. However, the pandemic also highlighted systemic weaknesses in the cultural sector, in particular the precarious working conditions of cultural practitioners and their lack of social security.
41 Emergency situations underscore the need for continuous state funding for culture through close cooperation between the Confederation, cantons and municipalities, as well as state protective measures, including enhanced protection of cultural heritage. As these situations often transcend national borders, international instruments such as the 1954 Hague Convention and the 1970 UNESCO Convention are particularly significant. Furthermore, in an environment shaped by climate change, the issue of sustainability is becoming increasingly important. As public actors, cultural institutions in particular bear a responsibility towards society in this regard. They must commit to sustainable development within the scope of their capabilities. The creation of a normative framework for action that spans the cultural competences of the Confederation and the cantons is crucial to ensuring a rapid and effective response to current and future emergencies of all kinds.
D. Supporting the digital transformation of the cultural sector
42 The digital transformation offers new opportunities for the cultural sector. However, it also presents a major challenge for the entire sector and is leading to profound changes in all phases of cultural creation. New channels for the dissemination and communication of culture are emerging, as are new means for their archiving and preservation. Blockchain technologies, streaming platforms and the increasing use of artificial intelligence in cultural production and distribution are redefining the relationships between cultural practitioners, institutions and the public. These developments not only raise significant data protection issues (Art. 13 of the FC), but also present new economic challenges relating to copyright, fair remuneration and the equitable distribution of economic returns (Art. 27 of the FC). At the same time, they affect fundamental rights such as freedom of the arts (Art. 21 of the FC) and freedom of expression (Art. 16 of the FC).
43 The Confederation has made the digital transformation a priority of its cultural policy and intends to develop funding instruments that take account of the new digital forms of production and distribution. Within the framework of its constitutional obligations to promote culture, it bears a particular responsibility to create favourable conditions for equitable, accessible and legally secure digital infrastructures and to promote digital skills in the cultural sector. The Confederation and the cantons are called upon, within the scope of their respective competences, to respond appropriately to this development, for example through support measures or by adapting legal frameworks, such as copyright law.
VII. Protection of Cultural Property
A. Purpose and Legal Basis
44 The protection of cultural property also falls within the scope of cultural promotion within the meaning of Art. 69 para. 2 of the FC. The protection of cultural property is a prerequisite for cultural diversity and participation. The law on cultural property aims to protect cultural property from destruction, theft, looting and illegal import and export.
45 Cultural property is defined as property which, for religious or secular reasons, is significant for archaeology, prehistory, history, literature, art or science and is listed in one of the categories of the list of cultural property contained in the 1970 UNESCO Convention (Art. 2 para. 1 KGTG). Switzerland has ratified the UNESCO Convention on the Protection of Cultural Property. With the ratification of the UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage, the definition of cultural property in Art. 2 para. 1 KGTG was supplemented to include the definition of underwater cultural heritage as set out in the Convention. In addition to these two international legal instruments, a number of other international conventions regulate the details of the protection of cultural property. The Confederation has fulfilled its obligation to implement its international legal obligations in domestic law through the Cultural Property Transfer Act. This regulates the import of cultural property into Switzerland, its transit and export, and its return from Switzerland (Art. 1 KGTG).
46 Trade in movable cultural property is subject to restrictions in order to combat illicit trade. In regulating trade in movable cultural property, the Confederation also relies on its power to regulate private-sector activities under Article 95 para. 1 of the FC. It is a matter of debate to what extent the protection of cultural property may interfere with the free market. The public interest in regulating the free market to protect cultural property is recognised in principle under both international law and constitutional law. In its judgment in Beyeler v. Italy, the ECtHR recognised Italy’s control of the cultural property market as being in the public interest for the protection of a country’s cultural and artistic heritage. According to the ECtHR, Contracting States have, within the framework of the protection of property (Art. 1, 1st Additional Protocol to the ECHR of 20 March 1952 (not ratified by Switzerland)), a certain margin of discretion to assess what constitutes the protection of cultural property in the public interest. This balancing of interests remains challenging in individual cases and must not be exploited for purposes unrelated to the protection of cultural property, such as the trade in cultural property.
B. Dealing with culturally sensitive artefacts
47 In 1998, Switzerland adopted the ‘Washington Guidelines’ (also known as the Washington Principles), which set out the principles for the return of cultural property belonging to victims of the Holocaust and other victims of Nazi persecution. Within this framework, the Confederation has taken a series of measures to identify looted cultural property and implement the guidelines, including the establishment of a contact point for looted art and the allocation of funds for provenance research. By adopting the so-called Pult Motion, the Federal Assembly has taken a further step towards implementing the Washington Principles and has obliged the Federal Government to establish a commission to assess relevant requests. With the entry into force of the Ordinance on the Independent Commission for Culturally Controversial Heritage (VUKBK) on 1 January 2024, a permanent administrative commission with an advisory and preparatory function is to be established within the meaning of Art. 8a para. 2 RVOV. The adopted Ordinance raises a number of legitimate questions, particularly regarding the principle of legality, the scope of application and the envisaged procedure. With the partial revision of the KGTG, the Commission was subsequently provided with a formal legal basis and its tasks were defined. Consequently, the Federal Council replaced the VUKBK with the Ordinance on the Commission for Culturally Significant Heritage with a Historical Burden (VKHBK) and appointed the members of the Commission for Culturally Significant Heritage with a Historical Burden (KHBK). The Commission commenced its work shortly thereafter and is, among other things, drafting procedural rules for the handling of individual cases. By international standards, this is the first commission to deal with restitutions arising from both the Nazi and colonial contexts.
48 Given the limited federal powers in the field of culture, it is questionable whether the establishment of a commission that makes recommendations on the return of works of art or other cultural property, for example from the collections of cantonal museums, falls within the federal government’s remit. This question, which was left open in Parliament, will need to be answered when a specific case arises.
About the authors
Vanessa Rüegger, lawyer and mediator (SAV), is a full professor of public law at the University of Geneva. She obtained her habilitation at the University of Basel with a thesis on freedom of art (Art. 21 of the FC) and acts as an advisor and litigator for cultural authorities at federal and cantonal level. She is a member of the Museum Council of the Swiss National Museum.
Tatiana Holmer, MLaw, MA, is a research assistant and PhD candidate at the University of Geneva. Her doctoral thesis deals with the legal framework for the preservation of intangible cultural heritage in Swiss law.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the editors, Prof. Dr Odile Ammann, LL.M., and Dr Stefan Schlegel, as well as the two peer reviewers, for their critical review of this commentary.
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Materials
Amtliches Bulletin der Bundesverfassung 1998 zur Reform der Bundesverfassung, Nationalrat, abrufbar unter https://www.bj.admin.ch/bj/de/home/staat/archiv/bundesverfassung.html, besucht am 17.3.2026 (zit. AB 1998 N).
Amtliches Bulletin der Bundesverfassung 1998 zur Reform der Bundesverfassung, Ständerat, abrufbar unter https://www.bj.admin.ch/bj/de/home/staat/archiv/bundesverfassung.html, besucht am 17.3.2026 (zit. AB 1998 S).
Botschaft zu dem Entwurf eines Beschlusses betreffend die Förderung und Hebung der schweizerischen Kunst vom 3.6.1887, BBl 1887 III 515 ff., abrufbar unter https://www.amtsdruckschriften.bar.admin.ch/viewOrigDoc.do?id=10013591&action=open, besucht am 17.3.2026 (zit. Botschaft Förderung und Hebung der Kunst).
Botschaft des Bundesrates an die Bundesversammlung über die Organisation und die Aufgaben der schweizerischen Kulturwahrung und Kulturwerbung vom 14.12.1938, BBl 90 II 985 ff., abrufbar unter https://www.amtsdruckschriften.bar.admin.ch/viewOrigDoc.do?id=10033812&action=open, besucht am 17.3.2026 (zit. Botschaft Kulturwahrung und Kulturwerbung).
Botschaft zur «Eidgenössische Kulturinitiative» vom 18.4.1984, BBl 1984 II 501 ff., abrufbar unter https://www.amtsdruckschriften.bar.admin.ch/viewOrigDoc.do?id=10049319&action=open, besucht am 17.3.2026.
Botschaft über einen Kulturförderungsartikel in der BV (Art. 27septies BV) vom 6.11.1991, BBl 1992 I 533 ff., abrufbar unter https://www.amtsdruckschriften.bar.admin.ch/viewOrigDoc.do?id=10052119&action=open, besucht am 17.3.2026.
Botschaft über eine neue Bundesverfassung vom 20.11.1996 und Verfassungsentwurf 1996, BBl 1997 I 1 ff., abrufbar unter https://www.fedlex.admin.ch/eli/fga/1997/1_1_1_1/de, besucht am 17.3.2026 (zit. Botschaft BV).
Botschaft zur Förderung der Kultur in den Jahren 2025–2028 vom 1.3.2024, BBl 2024 753 ff., abrufbar unter https://www.fedlex.admin.ch/filestore/fedlex.data.admin.ch/eli/fga/2024/753/de/pdf-a/fedlex-data-admin-ch-eli-fga-2024-753-de-pdf-a.pdf, besucht am 17.3.2026 (zit. Kulturbotschaft 2025–2028).
Botschaft zur Förderung der Kultur in den Jahren 2021–2024 vom 26.2.2020, BBl 2020 3131 ff., abrufbar unter https://www.fedlex.admin.ch/filestore/fedlex.data.admin.ch/eli/fga/2020/725/de/pdf-a/fedlex-data-admin-ch-eli-fga-2020-725-de-pdf-a.pdf, besucht am 17.3.2026 (zit. Kulturbotschaft 2021–2024).
Botschaft zur Förderung der Kultur in den Jahren 2016–2020 vom 28.11.2014, BBl 2015 497 ff., abrufbar unter https://www.fedlex.admin.ch/filestore/fedlex.data.admin.ch/eli/fga/2015/45/de/pdf-a/fedlex-data-admin-ch-eli-fga-2015-45-de-pdf-a.pdf, besucht am 17.3.2026 (zit. Kulturbotschaft 2016–2020).
Botschaft zur Förderung der Kultur in den Jahren 2012–2015 vom 23.2.2011, BBl 2011 2971 ff., abrufbar unter https://www.fedlex.admin.ch/filestore/fedlex.data.admin.ch/eli/fga/2011/455/de/pdf-a/fedlex-data-admin-ch-eli-fga-2011-455-de-pdf-a.pdf, besucht am 17.3.2026 (zit. Kulturbotschaft 2012–2015).
Botschaft zum Bundesgesetz über die Kulturförderung vom 8.6.2007, BBl 2007 4819 ff., abrufbar unter https://www.fedlex.admin.ch/filestore/fedlex.data.admin.ch/eli/fga/2007/681/de/pdf-a/fedlex-data-admin-ch-eli-fga-2007-681-de-pdf-a.pdf, besucht am 17.3.2026 (zit. Botschaft KFG).
Botschaft zur Totalrevision des Bundesgesetzes über den Schutz der Kulturgüter bei bewaffneten Konflikten vom 13.11.2013, BBl 2013 8987 ff., abrufbar unter https://www.fedlex.admin.ch/filestore/fedlex.data.admin.ch/eli/fga/2013/1805/de/pdf-a/fedlex-data-admin-ch-eli-fga-2013-1805-de-pdf-a.pdf, besucht am 17.3.2026.
Botschaft zum Übereinkommen zur Bewahrung des immateriellen Kulturerbes vom 21.9.2007, BBl 2007 7251 ff., abrufbar unter https://www.fedlex.admin.ch/filestore/fedlex.data.admin.ch/eli/fga/2007/1109/de/pdf-a/fedlex-data-admin-ch-eli-fga-2007-1109-de-pdf-a.pdf, besucht am 17.3.2026 (zit. Botschaft immateriellen Kulturerbe).
Botschaft zum Übereinkommen über den Schutz und die Förderung der Vielfalt kultureller Ausdrucksformen vom 21.9.2007, BBl 2007 7297 ff., abrufbar unter https://www.fedlex.admin.ch/filestore/fedlex.data.admin.ch/eli/fga/2007/1112/de/pdf-a/fedlex-data-admin-ch-eli-fga-2007-1112-de-pdf-a.pdf, besucht am 17.3.2026 (zit. Botschaft kulturelle Ausdrucksformen).
Bundesamt für Kultur (BAK), Rahmenkonzept «Junge Talente Musik». Ein Förderprogramm des Bundes, Juni 2022, abrufbar unter https://www.bak.admin.ch/bak/de/home/sprachen-und-gesellschaft/musikalische-bildung/jung-talente-musik.html, besucht am 17.3.2026 (zit. Rahmenkonzept).
Bundesbeschluss über die «Eidgenössische Kulturinitiative» vom 20.12.1985, BBl 1986 I 45 ff., abrufbar unter https://www.fedlex.admin.ch/eli/fga/1986/1_45_46_46/de, besucht am 17.3.2026.
Bundesbeschluss betreffend die Errichtung einer schweizerischen Landesbibliothek vom 28.6.1894, BBl 1894 III 140 ff., abrufbar unter https://www.fedlex.admin.ch/eli/fga/1894/3_140_46_/de, besucht am 17.3.2026.
Bundesbeschluss über einen Kulturförderungsartikel in der Bundesverfassung (Art. 27septies BV) vom 18.6.1993, BBl 1993 II 870 ff., abrufbar unter https://www.fedlex.admin.ch/eli/fga/1993/2_870_845_782/de, besucht am 17.3.2026.
Bundesbeschluss betreffend die Förderung und Hebung der schweizerischen Kunst vom 22.12.1887, BBl 1888 I 1 ff., abrufbar unter https://www.fedlex.admin.ch/eli/fga/1888/1_1_1_/de, besucht am 17.3.2026.
Bundesbeschluss betreffend die Errichtung eines schweizerischen Landesmuseums vom 27.6.1890, BBl 1890 III 640 ff., abrufbar unter https://www.fedlex.admin.ch/eli/fga/1890/3_640_914_/de, besucht am 17.3.2026.
Bundesratsbeschluss über das Ergebnis der Volksabstimmung vom 12.6.1994 (Kulturförderung; Einbürgerungsfragen; Friedenserhaltung) vom 16.8.1994, BBl 1994 III 1251 ff., abrufbar unter https://www.fedlex.admin.ch/eli/fga/1994/3_1251_1232_/de, besucht am 17.3.2026.
Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (CESCR), General Comment No. 21, Right of Everyone to Take Part in Cultural Life (art. 15, para. 1(a), of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights) (21.12.2009), U.N. Doc. E/C.12/GC/21.
Deutsche UNESCO-Kommission, Weltkonferenz über Kulturpolitik. Schlussbericht der von der UNESCO vom 26.7 bis 6.8.1982 in Mexiko-Stadt veranstalteten internationalen Konferenz, UNESCO-Konferenzberichte, Nr. 5, München 1983.
Eidgenössischen Departements des Innern (EDI), Die Arbeiten des Bundes im Bereich der NS-Raubkunst im Zeitraum von 2017–2021. Bericht zuhanden des Bundesrats, 10.6.2022, abrufbar unter https://www.bak.admin.ch/bak/de/home/kulturerbe/raubkunst/die-anlaufstelle-raubkunst.html, besucht am 17.3.2026 (zit. NS-Raubkunst im Zeitraum von 2017–2021).
Eidgenössischen Expertenkommission für Fragen einer schweizerischen Kulturpolitik, Beiträge für eine Kulturpolitik in der Schweiz, Bern, August 1975, abrufbar unter https://www.bak.admin.ch/bak/de/home/themen/kulturfoerderungsgesetz/geschichte-der-bundesstaatlichen-kulturfoerderung.html#-1964039506, besucht am 17.3.2026 (zit. Clottu-Bericht).
Erläuterungen zum Verfassungsentwurf 1995, abrufbar unter https://www.bj.admin.ch/bj/de/home/staat/archiv/bundesverfassung.html, besucht am 17.3.2026 (zit. Erläuterungen VE 95).
Human Rights Committee (HRC), Report of the Special Rapporteur in the Field of Cultural Rights (3.2.2016), U.N. Doc. A/HRC/31/59.
Human Rights Committee (HRC), Report of the Independent Expert in the Field of Cultural Rights (21.3.2011), U.N. Doc. A/HRC/17/38.
Nationaler Kulturdialog, Ökologie im Kulturbereich. Abschlussbericht, November 2024, abrufbar unter https://www.bak.admin.ch/bak/de/home/themen/nationaler-kulturdialog.html, besucht am 17.3.2026.
Nationaler Kulturdialog, Empfehlungen zur Entschädigung von Kunstschaffenden in der Schweiz, 22.4.2024, abrufbar unter https://www.bak.admin.ch/bak/de/home/themen/nationaler-kulturdialog.html, besucht am 17.3.2026.
Nationaler Kulturdialog, Konzept zur Bewahrung und Pflege des Kulturerbes der Schweiz, 13.11.2023, abrufbar unter https://www.bak.admin.ch/bak/de/home/themen/nationaler-kulturdialog.html, besucht am 17.3.2026.
UNESCO, MONDIACULT 2022 Final Declaration, UNESCO World Conference on Cultural Policies and Sustainable Development, Mexico City, 28–30.9.2022, MONDIACULT-2022/CPD/6.