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FEDERAL CONSTITUTION
CODE OF OBLIGATIONS
FEDERAL LAW ON PRIVATE INTERNATIONAL LAW
LUGANO CONVENTION
CODE OF CRIMINAL PROCEDURE
CIVIL PROCEDURE CODE
FEDERAL ACT ON POLITICAL RIGHTS
CIVIL CODE
FEDERAL ACT ON CARTELS AND OTHER RESTRAINTS OF COMPETITION
FEDERAL ACT ON INTERNATIONAL MUTUAL ASSISTANCE IN CRIMINAL MATTERS
DEBT ENFORCEMENT AND BANKRUPTCY ACT
FEDERAL ACT ON DATA PROTECTION
SWISS CRIMINAL CODE
CYBERCRIME CONVENTION
- I. Systematic and genesis of the norm
- II. Context
- III. The competence of the cantons to conclude international treaties (paragraph 1)
- IV. Limitations (paragraph 2)
- V. International treaties concluded directly by the cantons (paragraph 3)
- Recommended further reading
- About the author
- Bibliography
I. Systematic and genesis of the norm
1 Article 56 of the Constitution is part of a chapter whose main purpose is to list the competences of the Confederation. Within this chapter, it is part of the section 'Relations with foreign countries' (Art. 54 to 56), which covers both the relations of the Confederation and the relations of the cantons with foreign countries. The definition of competencies in this area raises complex questions and is not based on the traditional division of competencies in Articles 3 and 42 para. 1. According to Article 54 para. 1, "foreign affairs are the responsibility of the Confederation". This article establishes a comprehensive competence of the Confederation in the field of foreign affairs. According to Article 56, however, this competence is partially withdrawn in the areas of competence of the cantons. Art. 56 thus qualifies Art. 54 para. 1 by allowing for individual cantonal competence in the area of foreign affairs. There is thus an interdependence between these two provisions. The doctrine uses the term "small foreign policy" to describe the residual cantonal competence in foreign policy. The effects of this cantonal competence are described below (N. 7).
2 In view of the extensive treaty practice of the cantons before the birth of the federal state, their residual competence to conclude international treaties has been recognised by federal constitutional law since 1848. The equivalent of Art. 56 is thus found in Art. 9 and 10 of the former Federal Constitution of 29 May 1874 (aCst.), which are themselves equivalent to Art. 9 and 10 of the former Federal Constitution of 12 September 1848 (aCst. 1848).
3 In contrast to the two previous versions of the Constitution, however, the competence of the cantons to conclude treaties is no longer restricted to certain defined areas (public economy, neighbourhood relations and police). Article 56 thus applies to all areas "within their competence" (Art. 56 para. 1). In addition, Art. 56 abandons the practice of federal approval of cantonal international treaties that was provided for in Art. 9 aCst. and replaces it with a simple duty to inform (Art. 56 para. 2), combined with a complaints procedure (N. 18-20).
II. Context
4 The possibility for federated entities to conclude international treaties also exists in Germany, Austria and Belgium, so that the doctrine uses the notion of "open federal state" to describe this type of internal organisation. In Switzerland, cross-border cooperation is of great practical importance for the cantons, as fifteen cantons share a border with at least one foreign state.
5 According to a study by Bardo Fassbender and Raffael Gübeli, 436 international cantonal treaties were in force in Switzerland as of 25 September 2017. The authors point out, however, that this list is not exhaustive, as it is impossible to take into account all unpublished treaties. It is true that Art. 56 para. 2 Cst. provides for a duty to inform on the part of the Confederation (N. 18-20). However, according to Art. 61c para. 2 LOGA, this duty to inform does not apply to agreements that 'a. have as their object the execution of agreements of which the Confederation is already aware; b. are primarily addressed to the authorities or regulate technical or administrative matters'. Furthermore, Fassbender and Gübeli point out that the Confederation does not have the means to enforce the cantons' duty to inform. Under these conditions, the existence of a duty to inform does not allow the Confederation to publish all international treaties concluded by the cantons. The study also shows that the conclusion of international treaties by the cantons has increased over the last 35 years, mainly due to the increase in cross-border cooperation. However, it appears that the existing cantonal international treaties do not reflect the extent of the cantons' external action. Indeed, similar to the phenomenon of "treaty fatigue" that is highlighted by several authors at the international level, the cantons' external action is increasingly carried out through informal agreements (soft law), which are more flexible and do not have to be approved by the Confederation or the cantonal parliaments.
6 The cross-border cooperation of the Swiss cantons is governed, in international and domestic law, by several conventions, which aim to facilitate this cooperation between federated entities. These are the following texts:
The European Outline Convention on Transfrontier Co-operation between Territorial Communities or Authorities, which entered into force for Switzerland on 4 June 1982 (Madrid Convention);
The three Additional Protocols to the Madrid Convention;
The framework agreement between Switzerland and the Italian Republic on cross-border co-operation between regional and local authorities, which entered into force for Switzerland on 26 April 1993;
The Agreement between the Swiss Federal Council, the Government of the Federal Republic of Germany and the Government of the French Republic on cross-border cooperation in the Upper Rhine region, which entered into force for Switzerland on 1 June 2001;
The Agreement of 23 January 1996 between the Government of the Federal Republic of Germany, the Government of the French Republic, the Government of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg and the Swiss Federal Council, acting on behalf of the cantons of Solothurn, Basel-Stadt, Basel-Landschaft, Aargau and Jura, on cross-border cooperation between local authorities and public bodies (Karlsruhe Agreement);
The Convention on the Participation of Cantonal Parliaments in the Preparation, Ratification, Execution and Amendment of Intercantonal Agreements and Treaties of the Cantons with Foreign Countries.
III. The competence of the cantons to conclude international treaties (paragraph 1)
7 In accordance with Article 56 paragraph 1, the cantons may conduct their own foreign policy in the areas in which they are competent in accordance with the division of powers established by the Constitution. The competence of the cantons to conclude international treaties is, however, subsidiary to that of the Confederation. Thus, the cantons may only exercise this competence if the Confederation has not already concluded a treaty in the area concerned. If the Confederation concludes an international treaty in a given field, any cantonal competence in this field becomes null and void insofar as the international treaty contains comprehensive and exhaustive regulations. For example, the Federal Court held that the Confederation had exercised its competence in the area of wine growing and AOCs (appellations d'origine contrôlée) by concluding the Bilateral Agreement on Trade in Agricultural Products with the European Union. It therefore concluded that the Canton of Geneva was not entitled to conclude international treaties in this field.
8 In some cantons, municipalities have the possibility to conclude cooperation agreements with foreign authorities. The Karlsruhe Agreement mentioned above provides a framework for these different forms of cooperation between municipalities. However, there is no agreement in the literature on how to qualify these agreements. According to the majority view, municipalities are not entitled to conclude international treaties; municipal cross-border cooperation is therefore exclusively a matter of private law. Pfisterer, on the other hand, considers that municipalities may conclude international agreements if cantonal law permits. We agree with the majority view that agreements concluded by municipalities are subject to private law. In our opinion, this position is justified by the fact that contractual obligations contained in cooperation agreements concluded by municipalities cannot engage the responsibility of the state under art. 7 para. 1 of the Karlsruhe Agreement. However, if these agreements were considered international treaties in accordance with the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, their non-observance would entail state responsibility.
A. Cantonal international treaties in international law
9 Under international law, treaties concluded by the cantons are treaties like any other, i.e., according to the definition in Art. 2 para. 1 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, agreements concluded "in writing between States and governed by international law, whether embodied in a single instrument or in two or more related instruments, and whatever their particular designation". Cantons may also conclude unwritten treaties and bind themselves to international organisations.
10 From the point of view of international law, however, it is not the cantons that are bound, but Switzerland as a state. Thus, from a formal point of view, the relations of the cantons with foreign states take place through the Confederation. This means that the conduct of negotiations, signing and ratification is the responsibility of the Confederation, which acts on behalf of the cantons concerned. In the event of non-compliance with the treaty, the Confederation alone is liable at the international level.
11 In addition to international treaties, the cantons may also establish cooperation with other countries through informal cooperation. The marginal note to Article 56 refers to 'relations of the cantons with other countries', which offers the cantons other forms of cooperation. The doctrine notes that this informal cooperation is more important in practice than the conclusion of international treaties. This informal cooperation is particularly used in cantons that share a border with a neighbouring state. It may take the form, for example, of contacts, discussions and agreements in cross-border regional commissions and forums.
B. Cantonal international treaties in domestic law
1. Conclusion, amendment and denunciation
12 Three procedures exist in Swiss domestic law for the conclusion of international treaties by the cantons. As mentioned above, the Federal Council is generally competent to conclude treaties on behalf of the cantons (Art. 184 para. 2 Cst.). More rarely, the Confederation may also conclude a treaty in its own name and on behalf of the canton. Finally, according to Art. 56 para. 3 Cst. the cantons may conclude treaties in their own name if they communicate directly with the lower authorities of foreign states (N. 21-22). In any event, in all three cases, the cantonal international treaty thus concluded is binding on the Confederation at the international level (nos. 9-10).
13 Within the canton, cantonal law determines which authority is responsible for foreign cooperation. In general, the executive is responsible for drawing up and signing international treaties, and the parliaments have the power to approve the content of the treaties, subject to a referendum if necessary. In some cases, it is foreseen that the cantonal parliament participates in the preparation of important treaties submitted for its approval. Generally speaking, however, the preponderance of the executive's role in the preparation of international treaties inevitably causes a certain democratic deficit. Thus, in intergovernmental relations, parliamentarians are often faced with a binary choice of whether or not to accept provisions that they have not had the opportunity to discuss. Under these conditions, the participation of parliaments through the approval procedure is in our view not sufficient to ensure the democratic legitimacy of the treaties concerned. Furthermore, the increasing use of informal cooperation instruments (N. 11) may also have negative effects on the democratic principle, as these instruments do not require parliamentary approval. In order to reduce this deficit, the involvement of parliaments in the elaboration of these conventions should be increased at an early stage, i.e. during the negotiations. In a second stage, parliamentarians should have the opportunity to debate and modify the provisions proposed by the executive before approving them. The challenge is to find a balance between increasing democratic legitimacy and ensuring efficiency.
2. Rank
14 The question of the rank in domestic law of international treaties concluded by the cantons raises complex issues. Some scholars consider that international treaties concluded by the cantons are part of cantonal law at the domestic level. Other authors, with whom we agree, consider that these treaties belong to international law. Indeed, it seems logical to us that treaties concluded with foreign countries - whether through the Confederation or by the cantons autonomously - should form part of international law. If international treaties concluded by the cantons were part of cantonal law, they could not be applied in the presence of contrary federal laws, in accordance with the principle of the derogatory force of federal law. However, the doctrine unanimously recognises that these treaties derogate from subsequent and contrary federal laws. Moreover, several authors consider that Article 190 of the Constitution applies to cantonal international treaties, which also argues in favour of these conventions being part of international law.
3. Implementation
15 The way in which international treaties are to be implemented within the Swiss legal order is not determined by international law. On the contrary, the domestic authorities are free to decide how they implement international treaty obligations at the domestic level. This also applies to treaties concluded by the cantons. On the other hand, as mentioned above (n. 10), the Confederation is responsible for the observance and proper implementation of these treaties at the international level. Therefore, if a canton does not comply with a treaty it has concluded or does not implement it, the Confederation is entitled - at least in theory - to act in its place through federal enforcement. In practice, however, the Confederation rarely interferes with the competence of the cantons to implement their obligations on their behalf.
IV. Limitations (paragraph 2)
A. Requirement of conformity with federal and cantonal law and the interests of the Confederation
16 At the time of their conclusion, international treaties concluded by the cantons must not conflict with either federal law or the law of the other cantons. On the other hand, as we have seen, once ratified, such treaties take precedence over any subsequent federal or cantonal laws that might conflict with them, in accordance with the principle of the primacy of international law provided for in art. 5 para. 4 of the Constitution (see N. 14).
17 Furthermore, treaties concluded by the cantons must respect the "interests of the Confederation". This formula is identical to that of Art. 48 para. 3 and must be interpreted in the same way, i.e. broadly. It refers to national interests - such as the maintenance of good relations with foreign states or international organisations - and not only to the political interests of the Federal Bern. The Federal Supreme Court does not completely rule out direct contacts between the cantons and international organisations. However, respect for the interests of the Confederation "prohibits any measure by a canton that could thwart or hinder Switzerland's relations with other states, such as resolutions of the cantonal parliaments on events abroad". The cantons thus have some room for manoeuvre in the conduct of their foreign policy, but they must take into account questions of political expediency. The cantons' room for manoeuvre is further limited by the obligation of confederal loyalty in Art. 44 para. 2, according to which the cantons may not exercise their powers in an abusive manner.
B. Obligation to inform the Confederation
18 Prior to the total revision of the Constitution in 1999, international treaties concluded by the cantons had to be approved by the Federal Council (N. 3). With the adoption of the new Constitution, this competence of the Confederation to approve treaties was replaced by a duty to inform a priori and the establishment of a complaints procedure. This limitation to a duty to inform, together with the possibility of lodging a complaint, is explained pragmatically by the fact that the former approval requirement was not well respected by the cantons. This requirement was perceived by several cantons as a bureaucratic obstacle to cross-border cooperation.
19 However, this amendment does not mean that the cantons are free to conclude any agreement with a foreign country. On the contrary, the cantons are obliged to inform the Confederation even before the conclusion of a treaty (Art. 61c para. 1 LOGA; Art. 27o para. 2 letter b OLOGA). The Confederation then informs the other cantons through the Federal Gazette (Art. 62 para. 1 LOGA). In the event of an objection, an amicable solution is sought (Art. 62 para. 3 LOGA). If no agreement can be reached, the Federal Council and third-party cantons may lodge an objection with the Federal Assembly within six months of publication (Art. 186 para. 3 and 172 para. 3 Cst.) The Federal Assembly then decides whether or not to approve the disputed treaty (Art. 172 para. 3 Cst.). In practice, the complaints procedure has never had to be used until now. Although it is not possible to verify them, several hypotheses can be put forward to explain this finding: 1) the a priori information procedure works well, 2) the complaints procedure is not sufficiently developed to guarantee effective control, 3) the complaints procedure is not applied because the cantons cooperate mainly on an informal basis.
20 The two-tier procedure (obligation to inform and complaints procedure) that now prevails is part of a more consensual approach, the aim of which is to reduce possible internal objections and discrepancies in the country before the conclusion of the treaty (Art. 61c para. 1 and Art. 62 para. 3 LOGA). It offers more flexibility to the cantons and thus aims to facilitate their relations with foreign countries. The aim is to reach a consensus by settling disputes through negotiation or mediation.
V. International treaties concluded directly by the cantons (paragraph 3)
21 As a rule, we have seen that the conclusion of international treaties by the cantons takes place through the intermediary of the Confederation (N. 12). However, Art. 56 para. 3 allows the cantons to conclude treaties directly with lower-ranking foreign authorities. In such situations, the cantons act independently of these authorities.
22 The notion of "lower authorities" must be understood broadly. It refers to all territorial or local authorities, to the exclusion of central authorities. According to Art. 2 para. 2 of the Madrid Convention (N. 6), these are "communities, authorities or bodies exercising local and regional functions and considered as such in the internal law of each State". According to the text of the constitutional provision, the cantons may "deal directly" with these authorities. In practice, this means that they can communicate and negotiate with them, but also sign and ratify agreements (see for example the Convention on cross-border cooperation in the field of emergency care concluded in 2011 between the canton of Geneva and the departments of Ain and Haute-Savoie). In practice, this type of agreement represents the majority of international treaties concluded by the cantons.
Recommended further reading
Abderhalden Ursula, Die Kompetenzen von Bund und Kantonen in der Aussenpolitik, in : Hänni Peter (éd.), Schweizerischer Föderalismus und europäische Integration, Die Rolle der Kantone in einem sich wandelnden internationalen Kontext, Zurich 2000, p. 118 ss.
Auer Andreas, Staatsrecht der schweizerischen Kantone, Berne 2016.
Biaggini Giovanni/Haas Julia, Verfassungsrechtliche Grundlagen der Grenzüberschreitenden Zusammenarbeit in der Schweiz, in : Tschudi Hans Martin/Schindler Benjamin/Ruch Alexander/Jakob Eric/Friesecke Manuel (éd.), Die Grenzüberschreitende Zusammenarbeit der Schweiz, Zurich 2014, p. 139 ss.
Breitenmoser Stephan, Regionalismus – insbesondere grenzüberschreitende Zusammenarbeit, in : Thürer Daniel/Aubert Jean-François/Müller Jörg Paul (éd.), Verfassungsrecht der Schweiz, Zurich 2001, p. 507 ss.
Bühler Othmar, Die Staatsverträge der Kantone, LeGes 10 (1999) 3, p. 75 ss.
Epiney Astrid/Kern Markus, Aussenverfassung, in : Diggelmann Oliver/Hertig Randall Maya/Schindler Benjamin (éd.), Verfassungsrecht der Schweiz, Zurich 2020, p. 2151 ss.
Fassbender Bardo/Gübeli Raffael, Die gegenwärtig gültigen völkerrechtlichen Verträge der Kantone, ZBl 119 (2018), p. 107 ss.
Filliez Fabrice, La participation des Cantons à la politique extérieure de la Suisse in : Massart-Piérard (éd.), L’action extérieure des entités subétatiques : Pour une approche comparée Europe Amérique du Nord, Louvain-la-Neuve 2008, p. 83 ss.
Hänni Peter/Börter Emanuel, Kommentierung zu Art. 56 BV, in : Waldmann Bernhard/Belser Eva Maria/Epiney Astrid (éd.), Basler Kommentar, Bundesverfassung, Bâle 2015.
Mägli Patrick, Verträge der Kantone unter sich oder mit dem Ausland, LeGes 1 (2004), p. 189 ss.
Maroonian Anaïs/Kolb Robert, Commentaire de l’art. 54, in : Martenet Vincent/Dubey Jacques (éd.), Commentaire Romand, Constitution fédérale, Bâle 2021.
Martenet Vincent, La conclusion des conventions internationales et intercantonales au regard de la séparation des pouvoirs, spécialement dans le canton de Genève, ZBl 112 (2011), p. 173 ss.
Portmann Roland, Foreign Affairs Federalism in Switzerland, in : Bradley Curtis A. (éd.), The Oxford Handbook of Comparative Foreign Relations Law, Oxford 2019, p. 297 ss.
Schaffter Roger, La compétence des cantons dans la politique extérieure, Annuaire suisse de science politique 24/1984, p. 213 ss.
Schmitt Nicolas, La participation des cantons au processus de décision au niveau fédéral et aux affaires étrangères in : Fleiner Thomas/Forster Peter/Misic Alexander/Thalmann Urs (éd.), Die neue schweizerische Bundesverfassung. Föderalismus, Grundrechte, Wirtschaftsrecht und Staatsstruktur = La nouvelle Constitution suisse : Fédéralisme, droits fondamentaux, droit économique et structure de l’État, Bâle 2000.
Thürer Daniel, Föderalismus und Regionalismus in der schweizerischen Aussenpolitik : Zum Verhältnis von Bundeskompetenzen und kantonalen Kompetenzen unter veränderten Umständen, ZBl 93 (1992), p. 49 ss.
About the author
Constance Kaempfer, LL.M. and holder of the bar exam, is a researcher at the University of Lausanne in the framework of a research project funded by the SNSF and co-directed by Professor Evelyne Schmid and Professor Martino Maggetti (https://wp.unil.ch/ilsp/). This institution is thanked for its support. The author defended her doctoral thesis entitled "Les mécanismes de mise en oeuvre du droit international par les cantons suisses" on 6 May 2022 and was awarded summa cum laude. The thesis will soon be published by the publishing house sui generis. In the course of her research, the author has also published several articles on the implementation of international law at sub-national level in Switzerland.
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Fassbender Bardo/Gübeli Raffael, Die gegenwärtig gültigen völkerrechtlichen Verträge der Kantone, ZBl 119 (2018), p. 107 ss.
Filliez Fabrice, La participation des Cantons à la politique extérieure de la Suisse in : Massart-Piérard (éd.), L’action extérieure des entités subétatiques : Pour une approche comparée Europe Amérique du Nord, Louvain-la-Neuve 2008, p. 83 ss.
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Maroonian Anaïs/Kolb Robert, Commentaire de l’art. 56, in : Martenet Vincent/Dubey Jacques (éd.), Commentaire Romand, Constitution fédérale, Bâle 2021.
Pauwelyn Joost/Wessel Ramses A./Wouters Jan, When Structures Become Shackles. Stagnation and Dynamics in International Lawmaking, European Journal of International Law 25/3 (2014), p. 733 ss.
Petrig Anna, Democratic Participation in International Law-Making in Switzerland After the Age of Treaties, in : Aust Helmut Philipp/Kleinlein Thomas (éd.), Encounters between Foreign Relations Law and International Law, Cambridge 2021, p. 180 ss.
Pfisterer Thomas, Kommentierung zur Art. 56 BV, in : Ehrenzeller Bernhard/Schindler Benjamin/Schweizer Rainer J./Vallender Klaus A., St. Galler Kommentar, Die Schweizerische Bundesverfassung, 3ème éd., Zurich 2014.
Portmann Roland, Foreign Affairs Federalism in Switzerland in : Bradley Curtis A. (éd.), The Oxford Handbook of Comparative Foreign Relations Law, Oxford 2019, p. 297 ss.
Schaffter Roger, La compétence des cantons dans la politique extérieure, Annuaire suisse de science politique 24/1984, p. 213 ss.
Schmitt Nicolas, La participation des cantons au processus de décision au niveau fédéral et aux affaires étrangères, in : Fleiner Thomas/Forster Peter/Misic Alexander/Thalmann Urs (éd.), Die neue schweizerische Bundesverfassung. Föderalismus, Grundrechte, Wirtschaftsrecht und Staatsstruktur = La nouvelle Constitution suisse : Fédéralisme, droits fondamentaux, droit économique et structure de l’État, Bâle 2000.
Tschannen Pierre, Staatsrecht der Schweizerischen Eidgenossenschaft, 5ème éd., Berne 2021.
Wüger Daniel, Anwendbarkeit und Justiziabilität völkerrechtlicher Normen im schweizerischen Recht. Grundlagen, Methoden und Kriterien, Berne 2005.
Wyttenbach Judith, Umsetzung von Menschenrechtsübereinkommen in Bundesstaaten. Gleichzeitig ein Beitrag zur grundrechtlichen Ordnung im Föderalismus, Zurich et al. 2017.